Human Behaviour In Organization Essay

We need to study human behavior even as we participate in the day-to-day processes and activities of human life. The need to understand the behavior of others especially those we come in contact with, and the need to anticipate and predict how others may act in certain situations are important since we are affected by their actions. We study human behavior in order to have an understanding of the actions of people. Its professional analysis could very well help an organization achieve its goals and pave the way for more productive relationships among individuals in groups and among groups in the organization. Hellrieger and Slocum expressed . . . â€Å"events do not occur merely by chance, but rather, that events are linked together.† By understanding and learning to anticipate the behavior of others, we also learn to influence others as shown in Milton’s model of understanding, predicting, and influencing. The understanding of people’s behavior makes the anticipation and prediction of events easier and smoother. We can thus influence them to think, feel, and act accordingly. The study of human behavior is certainly indispensable in the formulation of laws, rules, policies, etc. Society cannot function at its maximum for the people if its components of the organization in which the individual belongs do not have guidelines that are appropriate and that provide for the satisfaction of his needs and for the attainment of his goals. The realm of science and technology will be useless without the study of human behavior for it is their aim to make man live better and easier. Scientists and technologists wouldn’t know what to invent if they are not familiar with man’s needs. Business, especially marketing, will not thrive without a study of people’s wants and desires. Man would not and cannot buy all the products and services the company offers. Selective buying is a behavior that an organization should be aware of and understand. For a firm, studying behavior can increase its productivity for it provides knowledge and information which can be the bases for improving its performance, for rational decision and policy-making, for better planning and organizing, personnel and human resources recruitment, screening, selection, promotion, and development. It is worthwhile to study human behavior primarily because we are part of the human race, and it is by studying human behavior that we look not only into the personality of others but into our personalities as well. We come to terms with ourselves, understand different aspects of our personality, and find ways to improve ourselves and grow. Through introspection, we create self-awareness, an important ingredient in relating ourselves with others. NATURE AND SCOPE OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR Any act of an individual person which is considered human behavior is a reflection of his thoughts, feelings, emotions, sentiments whether conscious or not. It mirrors his needs, values, motivation, aspirations, conflicts, and state of life. Behavior, therefore, consists of all human activities. Human behavior occurs anywhere and everywhere. It is committed alone, with another person, with a group or an organization. The principles and concepts that underlie behavior are basic. It is their implementation and practice that differ from group to group or from one country to another. Human behavior which is also called human act is different from act of man. When man performs an act with free will, he does a human act. He is responsible for such act which is performed with alternatives to choose from. It is free will from whence responsibility emanates and flows that makes man a human being perform human acts or human behavior. An act of man is performed by one who is forced to do so at the risk of his own life. He does not have any other alternative/s to choose from. He is not given the opportunity to use his free will and thus, he is not responsible for this act. He, therefore, commits an act of man. An example is a man marrying a woman at the point of a gun. Instincts and reflexes are other examples of acts of man. Human behavior can be understood best by developing frameworks from the behavioral sciences which represent a systematic body of knowledge pertaining to why and how people behave as they do. ASSUMPTIONS 1. Every person is significantly different from the moment of conception. From the time an individual is conceived, he undergoes a plethora of changes – physical, mental, social, psychological – as he grows and develops from childhood to adulthood. 2. Every person is a constantly active, goal-seeking organism. Whether consciously or unconsciously, he is goal-oriented. 3. Every person is dynamic. Status quo does not characterize his state since he is barraged by different forces around him. 4. The characteristics of an organization influence the behavior of the entire organization and, to a great extent, the behavior of individuals within it as well. 5. Behavior cannot be predicted with one hundred percent accuracy since it arises from the varying needs and value systems of many different people. 6. There are no simple formulas for working with people. No one best answer. No ideal organization exists, neither an ideal person. CONCEPTS 1. Almost all behavior is learned. This applies to adults and children whose learning can be altered. However, this is not true to a newly born infant and to a fetus in the mother’s womb. The former sucks milk from the mother’s breast through instinct. By and large, learning is the first step in behaving. Whatever is learned can be modified or changed 2. Human being adapt. In accordance with their needs and values, individuals adjust to their environment. When their new learnings are congruent with their value system, they adopt them. What is adopted becomes part of their culture. PRINCIPLES 1. Thorndike’s law of effect states that behavior which is followed by a satisfying state of affairs tends to be repeated but a behavior followed by an unsatisfactory conditions tends to be extinguished. 2. Stimuli are those forces which impact the sensory organs of our five sensory input channels – sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. The impact of stimuli is a function of frequency, recency, and felt intensity. Communication, in all cases, consists of the creation of stimuli. 3. Behavior is caused but its causality is uncertain and usually multiple. It may be classified as having either a rational (cognitive) or an emotional (affective) basis. 4. Classical conditioning is a powerful technique for altering the behavior of others. But man’s freedom of the will makes him responsible for his actions. 5. There are no two individuals who are alike in all dimensions. The differences become more striking as they are compared from the physical to the socio-psychological components. Hence, the great disparity in behavior even between twins, since behavior is a reflection of a person’s physical, mental, psychological characteristics. METHODS OF STUDYING HUMAN BEHAVIOR Human behavior is a phenomenon which was observed, described, and speculated on cursorily sans any formal and written objectives and procedures. The maintenance of good relationships between and among individuals and groups was considered an art which mainly used speculation, informal and irregular observation of people and incidents. Philosophy based on speculation and logic and physiology based on experimental observation were the only two main approaches to the study of human behavior. The study of human behavior as a science began only in the 19th century. It was an offshoot of the studies in various disciplines like psychology, sociology, anthropology, and economics. Its foundations are rooted in these sciences. The methods used in the study of human behavior are the same as those in other sciences – experiments, surveys and case method. It makes use of observation, interview, questionnaire, check list, scales psychological tests, and statistics. 1. THREE-LEVEL METHOD. Milton proposed a model of studying human behavior at three levels: individual, group, and organization. It is called the I-G-O Model. This classification is the basis for differentiating the content of the courses in human behavior offered at the three program levels in schools. At the undergraduate level, the individual is the focus of attention; in the masters program, emphasis is placed on the group,; and at the doctoral level, human behavior is studied at the organizational level. 2. INTERDISCIPLINARY MODEL. Human behavior in organization is inter- and multi-disciplinary. At the individual level, psychology provides knowledge of perception, motivation and learning, while physiology and anatomy gives information and principles on the body and how it works. At the group level. Sociology and other disciplines like social work and education have given much contribution. Sociology offers insights into the roles, norms, authority, power, influence and status. Anthropology and other sciences like economics, business, law and medicine have wrought more changes and influences on human behavior at the organizational level. Culture and its artifacts are the main contribution of anthropology in the study of behavior in organization. HUMAN BEHAVIOR INDIVIDUALGROUPORGANIZATION PsychologySociology Anthropology Physiology Social Work Economics, Business Anatomy Education Law, Medicine VARIOUS SCIENCES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR 3. DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL. People grow and move to higher levels of resourcefulness, creativity, competency, and self-realization through proper maintenance, recognition, and development programs. Keith and Davis call this the â€Å"human resources (supportive)approach.† These basic and potent needs are recognized and fulfilled by the organization which considers them as â€Å"the central resource in any organization and any society. To the extent that people are well screened and selected, maintained and supported, recognized and developed, they can bring in and develop the various artifacts of an organization : philosophy (mission, goals, objectives, aims), funds (equity, borrowings, loans), values (needs, responsibilities), facilities (land, building, equipment, supplies), and technology (processes, knowhow). People are the main crux and heart of the organization, the six components are at their beck and call. These six components affect the individual who alters his behavior in a context which he himself has created. 4. SYSTEMS MODEL. A social system is a complex and dynamic set of relation- ships among its actors interacting with one another. An organization is a social system consisting of various parts at its subsystems. The systems theory posits that the organization is an open system with internal and external factors impinging on its subsystems making it very fluid, tenuous, dynamic and complex and these parts are interdependent and interrelated with each other This concept is opposed to the traditional view of a closed system with independent and uninterrelated parts. 5. CONTINGENCY MODEL. The varied factors in each problematic situation may constitute a unique condition. The problem- solver must explicitly consider the specific conditions to which a problem relates instead of simply prescribing a solution which may have worked elsewhere but under different conditions. This means that â€Å"no solution can work under all circumstances.† Every problem must be studied and analyzed in light of complex factors that may br highly interrelated with each other.

Gestures and Non Verbal Theory of Communication Essay

Non verbal communication is defined by David Dickson and Owen Hargie as â€Å"all forms of human communication apart from the purely verbal message† (p. 76). This means that any form of communication that does not require the use of language can be considered as non verbal communication that includes body movements which involves the facial expression, body positioning, gestures, and grooming habits (kinesics), verbal messages or tone of voice (paralanguage), and signs, signals and cues that are seen around. Microsoft Encarta defines communication theory as â€Å"the forms of human communication, including branches of linguistics such as semantics as well as telecommunication and other non linguistic forms. The communication experiment In an article entitled â€Å"An Experiment in Two Way Communication on Orcinus orca† by Dudok Van Heel,; C Kaminga , and J. D. VanderToorn, they pointed out an experiment about an attempt â€Å"to achieved inter specific communication between human and a killer whale. † This experiment was to find out if an inter-specific communication with a killer whale is possible. The experiment used acoustical symbols attached to visual object corresponding to auditory stimulus. They used the frequently modulated signals as stimuli which represent two action words â€Å"take and bring. † Result of the experiment The result of the experiment seemed to indicate positive responses as VanHeel, Kamminga, and van der Toorn noted that the â€Å"killer whale† became more and more active in the acoustic domain. † How ever the authors did not give a concrete result as the experiment seemed to take longer time before it yelled positive result. The Underlying Principles The underlying principle behind this experiment was the knowledge that â€Å"odontocetes have impressive brains which could surpass the requirement that will en able the animals to communicate at the level of language. † This is perhaps encouraged by the success of inter-specific communication between man and dolphins. Using Theory of Ethical Ramification (description). The ethical ramification of using theories of communication can be a positive development brought perhaps by different forces that struggles to assert their own identities in the society compared to the â€Å"dichotomous relationship. † (Sender/receiver) It looked like a wide complex scenario inside a department store that people are free to move as they want. But to some extent, it can also be described as a specific place of destination which had multiple directions leading to the place. One can take short cut or detour, or go straight. Summary / Conclusion Modern communication theories have opened many avenues of not only human to human but human to animals as well. Were not surprised by these theories as it comes out seems so natural. What is interesting is the idea of exploring the potential of communication between human and animals. If this proves to be successful it could bring us life benefits as we could communicate our minds with those beasts that we are in danger with the aid of modern communication technology. I would like therefore to make this recommendation. I recommend to those in the authority in this matter to do further research on how man can extend communication with other wild beast either by using gesture, verbal, or non verbal communication. That government provides more fund for this undertaking as this can be very beneficial to every human being. Work Cited Hargie, Owen and Dickson, David 2004. Skilled Interpersonal Communication: Research, Theory and Practice. Routledge. Heel, Dudok van, Kamminga,C van der Toorn, J. D 1982. An Experiment in Two Communication in Orcinus Orca. Http://OurWorld. compuserve. com/homepage/jaap/Gudrun/comm. _1. html Intercultural Technical Communication: The Pedagogical Possibilities of Paralogic Hermeneutics. Orange a Student Journal of Technical Communication. http://orangeserver. org/issues/6-4/daisy. html/document Definition of Communication Theory. Microsoft Encarta

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari

The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari Robert Wiene, the director of the film, The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, combines fact and fiction in his expressionist film in effort to captivate his viewers. This film portrays the element of fantasy in that it has an imaginary realm. The film breaks the rules of realism. In the story everything is crooked and all the sets are painted. The people with authority are revealed in exaggerated high chairs; for example the police is shown sitting on one of the high chairs in the police station.Francis first turns away from reality after Allen has been murdered because of the psychological pain it causes. In order to cope with this, Francis fantasizes that he is not the target of blame for his best friend's murder by blaming Dr. Calgari. His fantasy extends to a point where he is seen as the hero by challenging Dr. Caligari and Cesare. Later on in the film, it is discovered that the dream work that Francis’s unconscious mind uses to produce this story is re lated to the Freudian dream analysis; he mechanisms and symbols to produce his fantasy.In addition, Dr. Caligari and Cesare are not real people; they are fragments of Francis' imagination and serve as objects used to place blame upon. The films ambiguous ending leaves the validity of Francis' story unknown because his illness is not explicitly confirmed. However, the Freudian theory shows that Francis has fantasized the entire story to satisfy his guilty mind.

New service development proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

New service development proposal - Assignment Example The management of the organization can also promote the museum in UK especially among the youth and students through the new service development plan implementation. Notably, the objective can be done accomplished through staff training. Analysis of Environment and the Existing Service PEST Analysis Political Environment It has been observed that building cross party political support is quite vital for organizations in the museum sector of UK. It has been analyzed that due to the social, educational and cultural value of the museums, the government has been quite supportive towards the industry in UK. The government also provide funds to museums in order to develop them (Crown, 2013a). Economic Environment It has been observed that museum industry has been a major part of the tourism industry of UK. Eventually, this factor had a significant impact on the economic factors affecting the museum industry of the country. It has been noticed in this regard that museum and galleries are pr ime attractions for both the international and the local visitors in UK. However, in recent times, the numbers of visitors who visit museums have been observed to considerably fall (NMDC, 2010). Social Environment It is believed that the operations of any kind of museum would strengthen the society owing to which it intends to deliver education, inspire people, nourishes mind and behaviour of the people of the society. Moreover people of UK thing of museum as a place in which people visit and inspire them. People believed that Cultural heritage are also be preserved by museums (Museum Association, 2013). Technological Environment Technology is an important aspect of the museum industry. It is believed that through the incorporation of advance technology in museums, customers belonging to the young age could be attracted at a larger proportion. The government of the country thus seeks to implement advanced technology in museums so that maximum number of people (specially the youth) s hall visit museums and gather knowledge about culture and heritage of UK (Tallon & Walker, 2008). Existing Services Derby Museum functions as an independent trust that operates for and on the behalf of the people of Derby. They also provide services to channelize information related to art, history and social culture that are accessible by the community at large. It has been observed in this context that the main aim of the organization is to showcase and inform about various types of arts to the common public so that it could delight as well as inspire the people visiting the museum towards the heritage of the region and the world (Derby Museum, n.d.). Consumer Behaviour towards the Museum Sector of UK Consumers are undoubtedly quite vital in any kind of industry structure including museums. In the recent phenomenon, there have been rapid changes in the behaviour and tastes of the customers of UK non-profit service industry which has again created a significant impact on the prospe rity and growth potentials of UK museum sector. It has been analysed

Three-river-sources ecological environment protection Essay

Three-river-sources ecological environment protection - Essay Example It sought to evaluate the region’s management strategies on how the conflict between protection of the region’s ecological environment and exploitation of the natural resources for commercial purposes can be best resolved. The major findings of the paper showed that the activities of men such as hunting and construction of infrastructure have immensely contributed to the degradation of the ecology. As such, this paper observed that in order to create a long-term plan for management of ecological environment in the Three-River-Source, nationwide and local government will need to be foresighted and consider the specifics of each environmental problem in order to balance the conflict between protection of the region’s ecological environment and the use of natural resources for commercial purposes. Three-River-Source which is also known as Sanjiangyuan is located in the Qinghai Tibet Plateau. This name refers to the headwater of three rivers in Chinese and these are Yangtze River, the Yellow River and the Lancang River. These rivers are the major sources of water in the region whereby Yellow River accounts for 42 per cent of the total volume of water supplied while Yangtze River accounts for 25 % and Lancang River accounts for 15% (Wang, 2008). The Three-River-Source region has significant ecological value in the Qinghai Tibet plateau which is regarded as the worlds highest and largest plateau with wetland ecosystem. The region accounts for 2.32% of the total area of national wetlands (Wang, 2008). As such, the region is known as the â€Å"water tower† in China.

Case 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Case 2 - Essay Example Once the development team understands it needs teams instead of groups, it can proceed to form them. It would be waste of time for the organization to come to the realization, when much progress has been made, that it has workgroups instead of work teams. That would be a waste of financial and human resources and time. Good group members are likely to be people who share a group’s mentality and objectives. Group effectiveness is determined in large part by commonality of goals among its members. A group in which members have the same mission and vision is, more often than not, free of differences in actions. Members think and act as one. A good group member actively participates in group affairs; he is not an observant in the activities of the group. Whenever there is something to be done or discussed, good group members avail themselves to make efforts worthwhile. Finally, potentially good group members have the skill set required to contribute to the group’s success and activities. For example, it would be pointless to have a human resource expert in a group formed to develop better engineering techniques in an organization. This is not to say that a human resource professional has no role to play in such a group, but that his role would be so limited that it would cease to make sense. In such a scenario, the HR expert would be better suited to a group formed to explore better recruitment and retention strategies. Individual skill sets in a group should complement each other if any progress is to be made. The principles of diversity and personality are very important in managing conflict in groups. The development team must understand that its members must be different. There will never be an instance in which all members of a team agree on everything. There will also never be an instance in which all team members share the same background, experiences, culture, religion, or race (Robbins and Judge 263). The team should use

Review Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Review - Term Paper Example Last year the sport super bowl in the US had over 108 million viewers and the recent controversial use of $4 million on a commercial by a firm was making headings and any advertising firm would promise that such a figure would improve the brands image (Evans & Gerard 39). The sport super bowl has have a great media coverage and the same translates to the air play its gets plus the viewers it has. Research has shown that more that 30% of the viewers are interested in the commercials between the airplay of the sport than the sport itself. Commercials have become like part of the game rather than the norms considered as an interruption. The idea about using expensive advertisements and marketing techniques is a gamble because one can not be assured if the information will arrived to the intended destination who is the target customer but the gamble has one heavy side than the other. Advertisment has emerged as an important activity in marketing in the modern age of large scale production and serve competition in the market. Expensive marketing can be a great tool to ken turkey fried chicken brand and It performs the following functions: - Sales promotion: It boosts the sale of goods and services through creating awareness on the existence of the goods in the market and persuading the people to buy them. A good advertising strategy helps in securing new consumers in both the national and world markets. For instance in the clothing industry, a firm can purely base its marketing technique on the use of the internet and it can use video advert that are brokered by various marketing companies. Introduction of new product: It helps in bringing of new products in the market. Ken turkey fried chicken can register the availability of its new products in the market to the public through advertisement. A new firm cant make a

Strategic management and other aspects of HRM Research Paper

Strategic management and other aspects of HRM - Research Paper Example Traditionally, personnel management took the functions of HRM. When functions and responsibilities multiplied to the fore due to various organizational and environmental factors, changes have to be incorporated in the organization. Human Resource Management has taken over the functions of Personnel Management. These functions range from recruitment to training to managing the personnel and their functions in an organization. In the UK, HRM emerged in the late 1980s, giving way to personnel management, during the time when stress on the integration of HR policies was needed. The people are the organization’s greatest asset, and human resource is to manage or take care of this special asset. If the people are working well in the organization, it means HRM is doing its job of looking over the employees. Human resource management is defined as â€Å"a strategic and coherent approach to the management of an organization’s most valued assets – the people working there who individually and collectively contribute to the achievement of its objectives† (Armstrong, 2006, p. 3). But Storey (1989) believes that HRM can be regarded as a ‘set of interrelated policies with an ideological and philosophical underpinning’. Storey suggests these following aspects that constitute the meaningful version of HRM: it is ‘a particular constellation of beliefs and assumptions; a strategic thrust informing decisions about people management; the central involvement of line managers; and a reliance on a set of ‘levers’ to shape the employment relationship’.

Occupational safety and health - OSHA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Occupational safety and health - OSHA - Essay Example The next step involves an inspection of the damage at the assembly area and document findings and analysis of the outcomes. The most critical information to have right away would be the causal factors that triggered the occurrence of the accident at the assembly area such as the status of the equipment in use at the time of the incident (Burke et al., 2011). I would tell the engineers and the supervisors to compile documented evidence regarding the standards, design technology, and codes of the equipment that caused the incident and the suitability of such equipment for their intended purpose as at the time of the incident. Moreover, I would request them to provide an analysis of the causes and outcomes of the accident in relation to composition, human activities, external factors, equipment and functions that impacted the incident. As the OH&S professional, I would meet with the facility manager immediately and inform him or her about the incident, the number of hourly employees who have sustained injuries as well as their health condition, the nature of injuries sustained, and the medication offered. In addition, I would convey the causal factors about the information provided by the affected hourly employees concerning the cause of the incident. The facility manager would also be informed of the need for Participatory Ergonomic Inter vention (PEI) teams and initiatives to enhance safety related behaviors and outcomes as well as compensating the affected hourly employees (Burke et al., 2011). It would be recommended that I meet with the hourly employees and inform the affected employees about the findings attained following an investigation of the incident. In addition, education and training on OH&S along with the components of safety management would be discussed. I would also use the analysis of the incident to intensify safety related behaviors of

A short report of India's market for the UK Electrical Goods Trade Essay

A short report of India's market for the UK Electrical Goods Trade Association - Essay Example nomic performance prompted a change in the trade policy of the country; consequently, India introduced a new policy of deregulation, globalization, as well as privatization of its economy. India is a member of several multinational and regional trade organizations, which play a major role in her international trade. Some of these organizations include WTO, Asian-Pacific Economic Community (APEC), and the association of South-East Asia Nations (ASEAN) (Chan et al. 2006). In the past few years, the electronic industry in India has recorded high returns like never before. There are various factors, which have contributed to the demand of electronics in India. These factors include the improvement of the standards of living among the middle class in the country, and the fact that their disposable income has also increased considerably (Hill 2011). Moreover, the country has in the recent years taken some liberalization steps for instance reducing tariffs on imports, relaxing equity regulations as well as foreign exchange regulations, and last but not the list the banking policies have been refined to meet the needs of foreign and local market. The role of the Indian government cannot be ignored in boosting the electronic industry to where it is now (Banga 2006). More foreign investors have ventured in the electronic business in India following the increase in the demand for electronic in the country and the liberalization steps taken by the country has further created a conducive environment that is capable of sustaining an enduring high growth for the electronic industry. Several factors must be assessed prior to importing electronics to India. Before venturing into exporting electronic to India there is a need to carry out a PEST analysis to determine the factors that may affect an organization. The initials PEST is used to mean the social, economic, and Technological factors that might affect the business (Baruch & Budhwar 2006). Political environment: In the

Discussion topic Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion topic - Assignment Example For example, z-test can be used in a research study that involves comparison diabetes prevalence between male and female adolescents in a certain city; this is because the population shall be very large. A t-test is a hypothesis in statistics whereby the test statistics follows a t- distribution and the null hypothesis is congruent. In essence, the t-test can be assumed to establish whether two sample sets of data is significantly different from one another, and it is usually applied where the statistics being tested would have a normal curve distribution and the scaling term well known. The t-test examines the t-statistics as well as the level of freedom to establish a p-value, which can be utilised to determine if there is a difference in the population means (Senn, 2008). The statistical significance in t-test indicates whether there is a difference between two sampled group and the mean mostly reflects the actual difference in the study population from which they were sampled. t-test can be  utilised  to establish  Ã‚  if the slope of regression line has got significant difference from zero and to test null hypothesis when the difference between two answers have a mean value of 0 when measured on similar statistical unit. For example suppose, we are assessing the size of the prostate gland with cancer prior and post radiation. If the radiation was effective, then the tumour should decrease in size for several patients post treatment. This is often termed as paired

Cult and Brainwashing Essay Example for Free

Cult and Brainwashing Essay Brain washing which entails coercive persuasion to eradicate former beliefs and institute in their place new beliefs, has been widely linked to the emergence of cultic groups. Concerns on the motivating factor behind an individual’s acceptance to join a cultic group have been the subject of research and controversies from numerous studies. From these studies it can be surmised that the justification of an individual’s decision to join cultic groups could either be serious family problems and non family related issues, or relational issues with both family and peers. In addition, individuals with a high predisposition to crises and those who have had put up with the absence of a father during their childhood were also found to be more susceptible to join cultic groups. In social psychology, cult development and brain washing are interrelated issues that often attract disputes. Brain washing is often used to denote the process by which individual persons are influenced through a process that is manifested intentionally and through systematically applied techniques that are not only traumatizing, but are also aimed at instilling obedience through ideological resocialization (Dawson, 2003). Through the use of coercive persuasion, former beliefs are eradicated and new beliefs instituted in their place. It may also comprise manipulation of an individual’s social influence systematically (Kaplan Hellen, 2005). Its existence in the field of social psychology is a widely disputed topic due to the fact that it is not a recognized theoretical concept, but rather a sensationalist’s explanation that is used in reference to cultists and revival preachers. Not only do parties disagree on whether social process that attempt to influence individuals coercively exist, but the existence of their social outcome, which entails that individuals become influenced contrary to their will, is also an issue that elicits concern (Taylor Taylor, 2005). Critics of the brain washing perspective argue that it presents a simplistic perspective to be employed by those intent on locating effective social weapons to counter disfavored groups. They therefore, contend that any perceived relative success on those efforts aimed at achieving social control should obscure the fact that the notion of brain washing lacks a scientific basis to support the exposed opinions. Despite the negative attributes levied on cults, they also carry intrinsic advantages. One such merit is that they are seen as channels of transition to individual members. Even though members do not always belong to cults on a permanent basis, the experience they have while in cultic groups is often an exhilarating one, as they often recount (Wilson Cresswell, 1999). Proponents of cultic movements often cite clinical studies done on the psychological effects of becoming a member of a cultic group as the basis for favoring these groups. According to these studies, becoming a member of a cultic group has a therapeutic effect rather than a harmful effect. Other studies carried on cultist practices have also shown that what may be regarded as psychopathology of religious or spiritual nature may be a means for spiritual growth and expression of religious affiliation and religious stage (Kaplan Hellen, 2005). The notion of brain washing may also be a subtle form of behavior control which entails a system of reward or punishment for action. Education is a noteworthy example of behavior control mechanism targeted at achieving a desired behavior (Dawson, 2003). When behavior modification techniques are employed in a loving, caring and consistent manner, a change of behavior often results without feelings of resentment. On the contrary, perversion of behavior control techniques results in damage to emotions and psyche. Cults use a perverted form of behavior modification that ultimately damages the emotions of the individual. Through cognitive dissonance, cultic groups are able to remain strong even in the face of a failure of their predictions (Taylor Taylor, 2005). Social psychology espouses that cult development is founded on a basic premise of cognitive dissonance which explains why some cult adherents tend to become even stronger and resolute when their predictions fail. These individuals often find ways of coping psychologically with the experienced failure and they dissociate from the failure through: control of behavior, control of thoughts, and control of emotions. These three elements are interdependent, implying that when one is eliminated the others cease to operate effectively. Moreover, when the three elements are altered, the affected individual goes through a complete change (Wilson Cresswell, 1999). Behavior control entails management of a person’s physical reality which involves such aspects as an individual’s place of residence, employment, what an individual eats and where he or she sleeps (Kaplan Hellen, 2005). It explains why most cults impose stringent schedules for its members. In extreme cases, a cult member can willfully participate in his punishment, believing that he deserve it! Thought control, on the other hand, involves thought indoctrination of its members to the extent that members manipulate their own thought processes. An ideology held by the cultists is internalized as the correct ideology and forms a set of belief system through which information received by an individual member of the cult is filtered and processed before either being rejected or accepted. Through the use of a unique and specific language member’s’ thought processes are regulated in a manner that alienates them from a non cultic groups (Wilson Cresswell, 1999). Another mechanism employed by cultic groups is the thought- stopping techniques, which involves the use of mediation, singing, chanting or concentrated praying, which harbors an individual’s ability to test the reality. The person desists from blaming the group and shifts the blame to him in the event of a problem (Taylor Taylor, 2005). On the other hand, emotional control involves manipulation of an individual’s range of feelings. Control is achieved through the propagation of guilt and anxiety. The fear of being ostracized by cult leaders if a member is not seen to be adhering to the practices of the cult is created. Moreover, use of phobia indoctrination that elicits a panic reaction in an individual, helps ensure the individual remains in the cult, every time the individual thinks of leaving the group (Dawson, 2003). Another component of cognitive dissonance is information control which involves managing of the group member’s source of information. This is founded on the basic premise that denying people information needed to make sound judgment is usually expected to render them incapable of making those changes. This notion is widely employed in cultic groups, resulting in psychological chains that lock away its adherent from realities in the society (Kaplan Hellen, 2005). Susceptible Groups Of particular concern to the field of social psychology is the motivating factor behind an individual’s acceptance to join a particular cult. Numerous studies surmised from persons who formerly belonged to cult groups have in many occasions found a link between their joining cults and serious family and non family problems (Dawson, 2003). Typical issues such as a history of poor relationships both with individual’s family and peers were characteristic of these individuals. In addition it was also noted that young individuals with a high predisposition to crises also tended to join cults (Taylor Taylor, 2005). Still other studied note that those who have had to put with the absence of a father during childhood and who face a myriad of challenges often join cults. These observations have also been found to be consistent with a study that indicated that non converts tended to hold less authoritarian values compared to new converts to cults. Cults have been discredited with fostering, regression, paralysis of thought and dislocation of reality. The negative characterization of cults may however, be a result of interviewing former cult members , who may have left due to dissatisfaction, and who are thus predisposed to give negative views (Taylor Taylor, 2005). Reference Dawson, L. L. (2003). Cults and new religious movements: a reader. New York. Wiley-Blackwell. Kaplan, J. , Hellen, L. (2002). The cultic milieu: oppositional subcultures in an age of globalization. New York. Rowman Altamira. Taylor, K. , Taylor, K. E. (2005). Brainwashing: The Dream of Mind Control. New York. Oxford UP. Wilson, B. R. , Cresswell, J. (1999). New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response. Belmont, CA. Routledge.

Religious Rejections of Globalization

Religious Rejections of Globalization Introduction The conflict between Western and Islamic worlds has drawn the attention of various scholars such as Samuel Huntington and Fukuyama whom predicted future war would be premised on cultural differences. Since the 1990s, countless scholars have analyzed Islam and its connection to religious fundamentalism in order to understand why fundamentalists are so radically opposed to economic modernization and social change. More surprisingly however, is the fact that Western academia and political leaders have largely ignored assertive Christian responses against globalization, especially those coming from Christian fundamentalists whose numbers and political influence continues to grow around the world. The re-emergence of religious fundamentalism as a political force has been propelled by the perceived threat of globalization which promotes the spread of Westernization, neoliberalism and secularism (Juergensmeyer 140). In the eyes of many religious movements, globalization challenges the prese nce of local religions by encouraging capitalist beliefs that do not take into account moral principles. Among these religious groups, Christianity is of particular importance because of its status, outreach and role in international affairs. When we talk about Christianity, we refer to a set of religious values and beliefs that led to the creation of various denominations, organizations and creeds. The following essay argues that the religious rejection of globalization within the Christian community has been spearheaded by religious fundamentalist groups in order to prevent the creation of a secular world order because it threatens to reduce their influence, power and legitimacy. Presently, Christianity’s role and status in international affairs is being redefined by two important groups: Christian liberals and Christian evangelicals. This internal religious competition aims to democratically capture important decision-making positions within the hierarchy of western states to reassert Christianity presence on the public sphere to ensure social and moral order. Liberal Christianity and civil society’s anti-globalization response The influential expansion of global society has redefined the role that religious groups play in the development of important international policies. As multiple sectors of global civil society have come together to denounce the negative effects of globalization on the poor and vulnerable, religious groups have joined their voice to highlight the need to create a better world order (Lechner 115). It is important to note that global civil society’s critical responses to globalization have largely evolved along secular lines (Lechner 116). At the same time, if we define civil society as all forms of voluntary association outside the market and state, then religion constitutes the largest segment of civil society (Lechner 116). The Roman Catholic Church alone accounts more members than all advocacy networks combined together which helps explain Christianity’s influence and outreach on major international socio-economic issues (Lechner 116). The Roman Catholic Church has pl ayed an important role in condemning the neo-liberal model imposed by Western states because of its tendency to support the imposition of economic values over moral principles. During a speech by Pope John Paul II, during his visit to Havana in 1998, the leader of the Catholic community openly expressed his concern on the negative effects that capitalism has on the vulnerable but also on the worldwide presence of Catholicism (Robertson 612). He claimed that the absolutizing of the economy was wrong for three main reasons: 1-markets were imperfect and were bound to leave people unsatisfied, 2-withouth proper regulation, the community markets do not serve the common good which results in exclusion and marginalization and 3-left to their own devices, markets promote economic inequality (Lechner 124). In this sense, the religious Christian left and the western secular left have evoked similar arguments and appear to pursue the same socio-economic goals (Lechner 124). In the late 1990s, both the Catholic Church and Protestant Churches pressured affluent states for the forgiveness of poor nations’ foreign debt because it imposed heavy economic burdens on people whose human dignity was constantly challenged by unequal and oppressive conditions (Lechner 117). On November 6, 2000, President Bill Clinton signed a foreign aid bill fully funding debt relief for poor countries (Lechner 118). Liberal Christians around the world celebrated this victory that had rallied multiple sectors of global civil society behind a common goal. Truly, Jubilee 2000 demonstrated how the power of religious scripture could be used to re-shape the history of the â€Å"secular world† (Lechner 119). However, it is important to acknowledge Jubilee’s 2000 success was primarily caused by secular forces who lobbied tremendously well to achieve their goal (Lechner 120). In addition, the Catholic Church previous support for economic liberalism as a way to force the fall of communi sm contradicted its new discourse against globalization and neo-liberalism which further divide its community. These contradictions demonstrate that liberal Christianity’s moderate approach is too passive to efficiently oppose globalization and further highlights its dependence on secular forces to provide political solutions for the world’s most worrisome problems. The rise of religious fundamentalism in Christianity Liberal Christianity’s global decline has helped Christian evangelicals spread their political message in more assertive, faster and active manner in the Americas, Asia and Africa. At the moment, liberal Christianity represents a mere minority within their societies who no longer share their assumptions and are experimenting drastic socio-economic changes as a result of globalization (Stahl 350). This political vacuum has been filled by both secular individuals and Christian evangelicals that have attracted considerable amount of support towards their opposite political goals. Religious movements whether liberal or conservative tend to perceive globalization as a competing form of religion association that contains a set of established ideas, beliefs, authorities, goals and followers (Stahl 341). For this reason, religious groups zealously oppose this expanding force. However, religious conservatives appear to be more successful than their liberal parts in using certain aspect s globalization to reach people and transmit their political goals (Jesus Camp). Many Christian evangelicals in the United States believe that their government has been taken over by corporations and foreign agents that seek the expansion of evil and corrupt forces within their nation (Jesus Camp). This threat often takes form in secular institutions and policies that are often demonized publicly by evangelical leaders who lobby their communities to vote for a particular candidate who will accurately represent their traditional values. The ongoing expansion of Christian fundamentals and their active political involvement in public affairs makes them a considerable force that can effectively influence the political spectrum of multiple nations. Despite this, few western scholars consider Christian fundamentalism a real threat to the stability of their nations as they wrongly believe that the most dangerous face of fundamentalism is to be associated with Muslim faith. Religions of revolution and their radical answer to globalization The modern social stability of Western secular societies has been built on the free practice of religion in the private sphere. This explains why, westerners are so fearful of the public imposition of a single religious tradition that could violate the freedoms and rights of individuals. According to Stahl, religious complaints against globalization focus on two main themes: the demand for justice and the defense of tradition (Stahl 339). Stahl uses these themes to draw a comparison between Osama Bin Laden whose exemplifies Islam fundamentalism and Dwight Hopkins who embodies Liberal Christianity (Stahl 339). Osama’s complaints are addressed in Letter to America (2002) and Resist the New Rome (2004). He believes that Muslim fundamentalists are fighting a defensive war against the forces of imperialism and aggression which are responsible for the establishment of corrupt and dictatorial regimes throughout the Muslim world (Stahl 339). He claims this religio-economic war is a co ntinuation of the Crusades and other past struggles between Muslims and Christians (Stahl 340). He criticizes the economic, environmental and cultural decline of the West and defends Islamic tradition from what he believes to be an infectious and corrupt culture (Stahl 340). He also denounces the theft of Muslim wealth and America’s refusal to ratify Kyoto. Despite this, most of his criticism is directed towards individual behavior, especially the treatment of women and sexualisation of culture (Stahl 340). Immorality is high on his list, economic exploitation is not. His call for Muslim community to violently resist the enemies of Islam appealed to many devoted people regardless of their socio-economic background (Stahl 341). On the other hand, Hopkins’ complaint based on liberal Christianity is one dimensional because it focuses on the economic aspect of globalization (Stahl 341). As Bin Laden, Hopkins advocates for justice and defense of tradition, although he clear ly understands these concepts differently than his counterpart. On the demand for justice, he criticizes the grotesque accumulation of wealth and power into the hands of few individuals. He attributes this to be the cause of corrupt politics and the unrestricted destruction of the environment (Stahl 341). In defense of tradition, he claims that globalization is a competing form of religious organization that seeks to promote material realities and economic values over moral principles (Stahl 341). Bin Laden and Hopkins are quite different. Bin Laden was ready to kill to achieve his version of Islam whereas Hopkins liberation theology called for spiritual resistance and struggle for freedom and justice (Stahl 342). Liberal Christian has slowly become a religion of resistance that has struggled to mobilize its followers against globalization. On the other hand, Islamic fundamentalism is religion of revolution that violently opposes globalization. The means advocated Islamist fundament alism are not that different from Christian fundamentalists who have also adopted a confrontational direct tone to send out powerful political messages. Conclusion To conclude, Christianity’s position and role within the Western World is being redefined by two competing religious movements that aim to democratically capture political power within their state to reassert religion’s role on the public sphere. On the one side, Liberal Christianity appears to have a renewed interest in opposing globalization and neoliberalism which has motivated many liberal Christians to join forces with the secular left. The success of Jubilee 2000 attests on what this cooperation can provide in terms of progressive and inclusive social policies. However, liberal Christianity’s moderate critique of globalization has also been qualified as too passive by many of its members that are drawn by Christian conservatives’ more pro-active and direct message. As Christian evangelical’s popularity and numbers continues to grow, they have become an influential political force that opposes secularism and modernization in their own nations. As the dominant forces within Christianity are slowly turn it a religion of revolution, they are adopting various fundamentalist values and premises which threaten to unbalance the social stability of these secular societies. Western societies tend to picture Islam as the main motor of religious fundamentalism in the world. However, what they ignore is that the real threat to their society’s stability comes from the radicalization of Christianity which supports a more confrontational approach to promote their religious values.

The Effectiveness Of Election Campaigns

The Effectiveness Of Election Campaigns If there is one specific topic that has generated the most resounding growing political research in the study of voter behavoiur and election outcome, then it must be Do campaign matter? Decades of voting researches have explored this topic either as a co-relation between the effects of campaign on election outcome in new political perspectives or as a critique to the earliest voting behavoiur studies, whatever the rationale for investigation may be, it has ushered the emergence of a new political phenomenon. This essay would be explored from a typical two sided scholarly perspectives either to argue for or against the significances of election campaign in any political entity. Although this style of discussion would offer in-depth and broader academic resources for clearer understanding but may not be able to sufficiently examine the dimension and dynamics of campaigns in political phenomenon because of the limited time constraint. Also this study intends to draw a clearer picture between the importance and irrelevance of campaigns in cognizance of its relationship with some other socio cultural influences providing the liberty of the readers to take academic position on the argument SUPPORT OF CAMPAIGN Even though the literature of campaigning is unlikely minimal among the academic players, entirety of campaign have been eulogized as a key influence on election outcome and voting behavoiur amongst political actors. This view is supported by Holbrook (1996) as he argues that campaign enjoys continuous recognition from other political actors (voters, candidates and parties) but the scholarly community have shown less interest in campaign effects rather concentrated on the sociological and partisan identification, incumbency and its performances, candidate popularity as the essential factors which influence election outcome creating the emergence of the minimal effects of campaign by the earliest political scientist such as Berelson, Lazarsfeld and McPhee, 1954; Campbell et al., 1960 This position of argument influenced series of subsequent campaign researches which tend to primarily define the minimal effect of campaign as it merely activates voters prevailing partisan sentiments, thereby necessarily ignores a variety of other highly relevant campaign effects. Ironically, It is interesting to know how this minimal effects of campaign could create marginal changes in the voter participation can upturn the election outcome Considering the continuous transformation of the political institution, some political scientists ( Iyengar and Simon 2000) have argued that election outcome in any political environment are always shaped by interplay of many factors in which they may not be individually measured. Thus, they argue that assessing election outcome through the singular premise of campaign is unjustified because campaigns are part of the political processes which are traditionally focused on influencing voting decision by conveying certain impression about candidate or political parties In relation to this position, Ornstein and Mann 2000 in his descriptive analysis of the behavioral attitudes of campaigning defined it as a self centered, continual and persuasive political activity that gives the much needed relevance to the retrospective loyalties of the voter which reactivates them to make voter decision, Quite interestingly, he eulogized campaign as a key political instrument used to make a voter make a psychological purchase in correlation with his reasoning. However, such persuasion is achieved through aggressive media channels by engaging the voters feelings in a preferred direction. Because the political contests are predominantly competitive for elective position, the adversarial nature of campaign has reinforcement effect to maximize the voters loyalties in order to win the election is highly commendable. However, it is likely that campaign effects are heterogeneous across individuals and countries. These are the following reasons why campaign do matters; ENLIGHTENMENT EFFECT Recent researches have confirmed that there is a gradual decline of partisanship which given credibility to the significance of campaigns to influence the voter decision. The strength of retrospective evaluation upon the voter choice has been undermined by this decline which provides the fertile grounds for campaign messages to convert their perceived intention by enlightening their political knowledge. Shaw, 1999 and Salmore etal 1989 claim that political parties have failed in its primary duty to provide powerful information about the candidate during election causing a declining level of party identification in the electorate. In similar view ,Ornstein and Mann 2000 argues that there is a gradual decline in voter identification to the ideals of their political parties This is owing to that fact that the sudden change in party policies and in excesses of election primaries has weakened the allegiance of candidate to their political parties. These declining factors have given premises for campaign to persuade the voters intention for voting decision .However; this growing body of research has provided evidence that campaigns can influence voter preferences. This is evident in the study by Trent and Friedenberg (2000). Although voter behaviour are not only persuaded into new converts for opposing parties during campaigns, campaigning events are designed to reactivate pre-existing partisan loyalties of the voters for voter decision. To support this view, Ansolabehere 2006 further argues on the reinforcing model of the campaign effects on voter behavior as product of interplay of private and public information. This is within the premise that people use their cognitive properties (private information) with the campaign communication (public information to make voting decision showing the campaign reactivates their private supposition. VOTER MOBILIZATION AND PARTICIPATION Recent voting research has proved that campaign messages convert pre- voting intention into voting participation during election periods. Most evidently, Holbrook 1996 argues that findings have proved that there is fluctuation of opinions during campaign events which are due to its high content. This exercise tends to encourage public support which in turn influences voter behaviors. Because campaign exercise consists of several events, activities and processes, voter still respond differently to campaign events based on their individuals demographic and political ideals. The effect of these campaign events is that perceptions and opinions about the candidate and political parties are changed by the aggressive media communication which would propel voter participation. This is because researchers have shown that voting intention have been influenced by campaign communication which have strengthen voter participation in the election. Such participation would adversely enhance election outcome. (Kosmidis and Xezonakis. 2010 Personal canvassing, media communication and debates possess a more engaging interactive power to motivate voter participation in electoral processes. All retrospective alliance to his/her partisan party of the voter must be motivated by campaigning platform in order to encourage massive voting decision. However, the specific political act that can provide the engaging platform is campaigning. Certain political researches have not able to specifically measure the turn out effect of campaign on the voter behaviors but considerable evidence provided that voter participation increased during campaign activities. Evidently, in the field experiment by Gerber and Green 2000 on the effect on personal canvassing in the American 1998 Election In relation to the increased voter mobilization as a campaign effect, Bratton 2008 and Schaffer, 2007 collectively suggests that African election campaigns are mainly moments for politicians to engage in mass mobilization and the manipulation of electoral rules in order to increase voter turnout. Specifically in the case of Nigerias general elections of April 2007, Bratton (2008) claims that vote buying and political intimidation are characteristic dimensions of Nigerian election campaigns and are targeted at rural communities. Furthermore, Fournier etal 2004 argued that time-of-voting decision has been suggested as a key mediating variable for campaign effects. In other words, campaign messages tend to convert voting indecision to positive decision, or from one candidate choice to another thereby making the voter open to campaign persuasion. The media coverage and debates during the campaign influenced the voter intention drawing a co- relation between time of decision and the persuasion of campaign messages. In their researches, they confirmed that late deciders are responsive to campaign events in Canadian elections VOTER LEARNING Every voter needs information to make any type of voting decision either to reinforce his existing partisan loyalties or to make new voting decision. However, campaign is the most appropriate electoral process to provide such function. Because of the vast information- generating nature of Campaign, it provide the avenue for voter learning- the acquisition of information about the candidates and issues .During campaigns the political awareness are enlarged and fundamental voter preferences are being enlightened (Gelman and King, 1993), while the campaign learning process informs voters party positions and issue stances (Peterson, 2009). Campaign occupies the prestigious role as an educational academy for political learning through its information communication about the electoral system which enables the voter to understand the ideologies of the candidate, thereby offering them an enlightened voting decision. To support this stance, Iyengar and Simon 2000 describes campaigns as multifaceted and information-rich events which encompasses the candidates chances of winning, their personal and political ideologies giving campaign events (debates, candidate advertising) the opportunity to expose the voter knowledge to the personality of the candidate by boosting citizens political information, which may increase their likelihood of supporting the particular candidate Evidently, Hillgus and Jackman 2002 in the examination of the campaign effects in the presidential election 2000 in America party argue that conventions and presidential debates affected vote preference. They explored their research using the transition model to individual-level campaign data and concluded the effect of a campaign event based on the voters, campaigning timing, candidate Similarly, the effect of campaign for voter learning were evidently backed by Survey Researches such Brians Wattenberg 1996 and Zhao Chaffee 1996 as they found out that exposure to candidate marketing through the lens of campaign enhance voter learning which would encourage their voting participation Campaign communications increases the voters political understanding, thereby reducing uncertainty around the voting decision. Most recently, Kosmidis and Xezonakis 2009 executed an exploratory research on the undecided voters in the 2005 British general election; their finding confirmed that specific campaign messages formulated the choice preference of undecided voting behaviours. Agenda Control Traditionally, it is believed that voters choose whatever political interest based on their consideration of importance; ironically, campaign communication determines this consideration because of the cycle of appearance in media. Campaign messages surround its themes around those key interests and communicate them strategically in the media to set the agenda for relevance. Dalton etal 1995 suggests that because candidates are the principal sources of news during campaigns, they are in an advantageous position to simultaneously influence the media and public, for instance, candidates are motivated to introduce and pursue issues on which they enjoy a comparative advantage. The candidate closer to the student voter on an issue like fee reform would want to address that topic, as opposed to discussing issues which is not relevant to the student. Agenda control remains a key determinant of campaign effects because the candidate determines the principal yardsticks in which he/ she would be evaluated by the electorate as this are achieved through media communication. An extension in investigation of agenda control during campaign, Johnston et al 1992 argues that rhetoric also plays a special role by directing voters towards a specific agenda and considerations surrounding that agenda. This is achieved by the interplay of the acquisition of information and agenda control which provoke their voting decision. The evidence can be seen in their study of Canadian election 1988 which shows how free trade agreement between Canada and the United States, as a result of the candidates and parties rhetorical posturing came to the forefront of the public issue agenda To conclude the support for campaign, Kavanagh 1995 argues that the essence of campaign lies within itself, campaign is a means of choosing government and promoting political learning and citizenship, thereby contributing to the quality of representative democracy. This is because the interests of politics are heightened during campaigns through media communication about the candidate and party policies which are designed to attract the voting inclination for election participation. AGAINST CAMPAIGNS Examining the other view which argues that campaign do not matter, for the sake of clear understanding of the essay, the argument against campaign would be explored from the macro context factor of elections and their influence on voting behavoiur. As earlier stated, scholarly study on political science have argued the macro context of factors of elections both at the individual and aggregate level s strongly affect voting behavoiur and further posited that the macro context of election provides the wide platform in which any electoral campaign can function presenting a strong weakening interdependence characteristic of campaign. PARTISAN INDENTIFICATION Most predominantly stance of their argument is the influence of party identification on election outcome based on its psychological characteristics; their research argues that voting behavoiur and choices in elections are not merely a short term decision as similar the limited influencing experience campaign offers rather it is a conglomerate of certain long term political dispositions and ethnics in the social fabric of the electorate in which there is no room for campaign to change minds or influence behavoiur . An early voting research by Campell et al (1960) in their seminal book, The American Voter described the influence of party identification as a sustained psychological orientation to political parties which is a key determinant for attitude formation and political behaviour. Thus, electorates most often cast their votes based on their emotional affiliation with the electoral parties affirming their strong spirit of political devotion rather than the short persuasiveness of campaign propaganda. In the extensive study of the psychology of party identification and its influences of voting choice, a key realization is the existence of retrospective voting attitudes in the electorate. Fiorina(1981) explored the dynamics of retrospective voting and its direct impact of voting behavoiur as he argues that electorates associate their policy preferences with the policies of the party and make voting decision based on their retrospective evaluation of the performance of party in contrast to the mere make believe of campaigns. Much recent research points to the powerful electoral effects of incumbent performance evaluations which is termed the referendum model of presidential elections (Erikson 1989; Fiorina 1981) The recent studies such as Rice 1992 have evidently confirmed that election outcomes are easily explored without recognizing the mechanism of campaigning with their forecasting model. This simply means that elections outcome can be accurately predictive based on circumstantial factors before any campaign exercise. POWER OF INCUMBENCY Power of the incumbency is another factor that mitigates campaign effects. This particularly means that a party may enjoy a long term advantage in elections over its contemporaries because of its present governing authority. This long advantage may be due to the performance of the incumbency or possession of extensive resources to win the election. In this case, no matter the persuasiveness and aggressiveness of media fireworks in the campaign exercise, the ruling party would outage such approach. In all cases, every incumbency would strategically utilize all significant resources to ensure positive election outcome, they benefit from their ruling capacity in transforming media and economy to their advantage. In extreme cases, they use existing political institutions for election malpractices. A typical case is the Nigerias general elections of April 2007, Bratton (2008) which was characterized with rigging due to the power of incumbency by the ruling party (People Democratic Party) Trent and Friedenberg (2000) argue that the incumbency creates a special advantage for the candidate because of the political resources attached to the office of incumbency. Such advantage may be measured in them of the performance of the incumbency which may initiate retrospective loyalties during voting decision. In such power of incumbency, campaign may not necessarily affect the election outcome as voters would align their voting power t o the incumbency that have performed positively that an aspiring candidate of a new party STATE OF ECONOMY State of the Economy remains another significant factor subverts the effect of campaigns. Holbrook 1996 argues that the national economic context of political activities influences the voting behaviors, that is the economic performance of the incumbency largely influence voting behavoiur as voters are mostly inclined to vote for the ruling party in good economic times (High Gross Domestic Product, Infrastructural development)and more willing to change party in power in bad economic times(unemployment, inflation, high banking rate, poor exchange rate) . This position challenges the rhetoric of campaigns as it present comparison between the realistic experiences of the economy of the state and the fictitious gimmicks of campaigns. Thus, an aggressive campaign cannot influence the election outcome in occurrence of bad economic state A practical example cited by Holbrook 1996, was the American election of 1992, the winning of Clinton of the incumbent president George Bush was not due to his strong content of this campaign, it was purely because of poor economic situation of Bushs administration. No Bush campaign would have influence the voting behavior to change the experience of the realities o f the economy WEAKNESS OF CAMPAIGN ACTIVITIES Even though it is believed that the power of campaign lies in its events of activities, it have been characterized with several shortfalls ranging from its irrelevant key themes, ambiguous message and inappropriate media channel. Kavanagh 1995 also argues that the shortfalls of campaigns lies in itself as, campaign are mostly surveyed based on the content of output(advertisement, flyers) not by its output (election result).The lack of defined measurement system for campaign effect devalued its significance because election outcome is a product of several interplay of key factor and campaigns is least . Also he identified the ineffectiveness of campaign in various factors are wrong timing , conflict of electoral goals(election winning) versus other political goals(party values),Disagreement on campaign strategy and tactics ,Lack of party actors for implementation of campaign strategies, Lack of guaranteed knowledge about election winning. CONCLUSION Evaluating the two ideological perspectives on campaign, it may difficult to take a decisive position considering the continuous transformation of political environment. However, it is true that voters are open to myriad of political information designed to influence their voting decision but tend to make their voting choice based on their sociological experience, campaign seems to be one major political process that creates a platform of series of effects ranging from the reinforcement of the retrospective values, education of the voters political knowledge and influencing the voting behavoiur. The main paradox is the word matter in the question because relevance of campaign may be related to different objectives, context and ideologies. In order, campaign effects can be from different studies use different approaches to aim specific objectives. Therefore, it may be devaluing to adjudge a political act to be irrelevant if it does not achieve the entire expected objective. It is important to say that no political scholar can specifically say that a particular political activity guarantee the Election winning because Election outcome is a series of interplay of macro cultural actives, therefore campaign may matter but not necessarily to all voters

Robert Hayden’s Those Winter Sundays Essay -- Poem Poet Hayden Winter

Robert Hayden's â€Å"Those Winter Sundays† In Robert Hayden’s â€Å"Those Winter Sundays† a grown person, most likely a man, recounts the winter Sundays of his childhood. He remembers the early morning events that took place and how much the events portrayed his father’s love for him. The man realizes that as a child he failed to appreciate the hard work his father did in order to provide him with some basic necessities and some small additional perks at times. The theme of the poem is sad, and lonely. Assuming that the speaker is a man looking back on his childhood, the child was lonely, and possibly even afraid of the father. The child seemed to associate the father with â€Å"the chronic angers of that house.† The speaker, who may also be the author, uses images and imagery to help the reader focus on the important parts of the poem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Imagery is a plays a major role in this poem. The images used appeal to almost all the reader’s senses with the exception of tastes. Beginning in the first stanza, the reader’s senses of touch and sight are appealed to. For instance, when the speaker described the cracked hands that ached,† the reader sees an older man with dry, cracked hands. This can lead the reader to a number of assumptions again of the man being worn out from his job, or possibly having arthritis which would lead to the dry and sore hands. It also appeals to the sense of touch and sight when it describes the father’s hands and also when he â€Å"puts his clothes on in the blueb...

Andrew C :: essays research papers

Andrew Carnegie was an intelligent Scottish immigrant that excelled in the steel and oil industries. He provided our country with inexpensive steel that allowed other industries to thrive. Carnegie was also a generous and well-known philanthropist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Andrew Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland November 25, 1835. His parents, William and Margaret Carnegie, were impoverished iron mill workers. They immigrated to the United States in search of employment and opportunities in 1848.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Andrew Carnegie obtained a variety of occupations since his first arrival to America. His first job, at age thirteen, was a bobbin boy in a local cotton mill. At fifteen, Carnegie delivered telegrams for the Western Union. This job paid twenty-five dollars a month, which was considered a phenomenal amount of money at this time. At age 17, Carnegie had a job with the Pennsylvania Railroad. This job involved sending and receiving telegrams to benefit each train’s safety; he was now earning thirty-five dollars a month.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the 1850’s the major form of transportation used was the railroad. People would take the train for traveling to different areas around the country. Unfortunately, the ride to these distant destinations was quite uncomfortable. The passengers’ complaints increased. Theodore Woodruff developed sleeping cars that introduced passengers to more comfortable rides. Through the persuasion of his boss, Carnegie bought a share in this particular company while working for the Pennsylvania Railroad. Carnegie’s boss urged him to purchase one-eighth share in this company. The share’s money supply sharply increased due to the excessive amount of railroad companies that wished to please their passengers. From the success of his stock with the sleeping car company, Carnegie was able to place his money in other lucrative opportunities. At the age of twenty-four, Carnegie was soon aware of the oil being utilized by the Seneca Indians in Titsuville, Pennsylvania. Realizing his opportunity, Carnegie decided to buy land in a near by area. The oil on the land provided Carnegie and his brother with an ample supply of money. The land itself had increased in value by 125%. In 1870, Carnegie changed his job to become an iron master. Carnegie transposed the old iron making procedure with his new routine. He assiduously combined three ingredients – iron ore, coke, and limestone – to produce an essential product.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Iron manufacturers discovered that certain ores shouldn’t be combined with each other. By hiring a chemist, Carnegie’s ores were assorted into their specific group. Carnegie was then the first iron mill owner to have a chemist.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Carnegie assisted many companies with the makings of bridges, locomotives, and other products that relied on iron.

Does Halstead Need a Bypass

Halstead is a small market town in South East England, North Essex, and within 15 miles west of Colchester. Halstead is next to the River Colne, and is situated in the Colne Valley. Halstead has a population of 10 000 and is also the only settlement of its size in the Essex region without a bypass. Halstead was also a weaving town (where sheep's wool is made into clothe). Halstead is central to several big towns, such as Colchester, Braintree and Haverhill. Everyday traffic from all these towns has to pass through Halstead high street in order to commute, this usually results in Halstead becoming greatly congested on a regular basis, increasing air and noise pollution, and therefore Halstead central could hugely benefit from a bypass. A bypass is a route, which is built to avoid or ‘bypass' congestion in a built up town or village, this lets traffic flow without interferences from local traffic, this improves congestion and road safety. There are many reasons for and against the construction of a bypass. Advantages: * Less congestion in town. * Less pollution in town central. * Lorries would no longer have to drive through the town. * Both noise and air pollution would decrease in town. * Local builders would hugely benefit, from work needed. * It will be quicker for people to travelling to work. Disadvantages: * Expensive, local tax payers of Halstead would compensate. * An increase in noise pollution. * An increase in Air pollution. * Bypass would destroy surrounding environment. * Less customers and income from commuters in the town centre. In the past there have been several proposals for a bypass to be built in Halstead. In 1987, the Essex County Council classified main roads into the town a ‘busy' and found that nearly 50 % of the traffic was passing through Halstead. A bypass was first proposed in 1990, and public discussions were held, and a preferred route emerged, although it was the most costly of all options, costing à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½11 million. Four Years later two small changes were made to the route, following further discussions. Later, in 1997, it was decided that a bypass may be built after 2000, when sufficient funds may become available, but has continued to be put on hold. After analysing my results I conclude that I do not believe that a bypass should be built in Halstead. I think that he environmental impact, and impact on local residents is too big. Taxes would increase enormously and the consequence on businesses in the town will also be huge. The environment would be destroyed, ruining many habitats and bridle paths so horse riders and hikers wouldn't benefit at all. Although I don't believe Halstead needs a bypass, if one were to be built, I reckon that route A is the best choice, as this route goes further around the town than route B, therefore the town of Halstead would be much quieter, and less disturbed by the air and noise pollution.

C.S. Lewis: “We have No ‘Right to Happiness” Essay

In the essay C.S. Lewis claims that we the people within the world don’t have the right to happiness. Now why would he believe that we don’t? Surely, we have met people in our life’s here and there who we thought were either happy or not. But does that mean in Lewis’ essay that since â€Å"We have no right to happiness† that everyone in the world is miserable? Its ironic how nothing has changed in our culture since the time Lewis has wrote this short essay. I believe that people know how to be happy but they just feel like they â€Å"supposedly† have a good reason to not be satisfied with their lives. Society today makes â€Å"us† brainwashed thinking that we don’t have many rights to do certain things within our lives with all the music, media, and etc. When in reality we do have the right to make a stand and have our happiness be handed to. No one is to be felt like they can’t be happy because I strongly disagree on Lew is’ part for his title in the essay â€Å"We have no right to happiness† because I know that based on people’s life can be found happiness in many ways whether they find happiness in life, being rich, or love. Firstly, it just amusing that people misconstrue themselves thinking that they have the right to do whatever makes them feel happy. Even though, in the â€Å"Declaration of Independence† states that we are all equal and have rights to do what makes us happy, but to be honest it’s just all lies. For instance, in school our opinions in class shouldn’t affect our grades. That just shows you how the world just wants you to feel unhappy and that you have no right to speak up your mind. In reality, we truly don’t have equalizes in our own country which I feel it’s a shame because why doesn’t the world not want us to be happy? What we should have is balance in life in order to know what we know will make us happy. The major misunderstanding we the people have is thinking that we can steal, rape, murder people, and etc. Why? Because supposedly we can do whatever that makes us happy, despite the consequences? I feel like there should be limits when we talk about what can make us happy like doing the better deed instead of doing the bad deed that  isn’t the right to happiness. We have to remember good deed brings good karma within in yourself and you will be earned the happiness you deserve. Secondly, I find it really unfair how there are millionaires/celebrities who have all the money in the world and still aren’t †Å"happy† with themselves. Personally, if I were them I would be running around with joy in my big beautiful mansion that I bought. I mean if they deserved to be rich with so much money why not be happy? Therefore, you see celebrities overdosing themselves, and drinking till they can’t any more because they aren’t happy. For example, Brittany Murphy she died from an overdose with of course drug pills why? Honestly, we should all be grateful in the world that we have some sort of happiness to keep us alive because without it we’ll all be weak. In addition, for the people who drink away their problems does it help? Yes, when you’re drunk, but once you’re sober again the issue will always be there. Thus, we should always think twice before we act on whatever we’re doing. In reality, I truly believe that the rich are more depressed then the people who aren’t rich. Reason being, because they know what it is to be thankful and blessed no matter how richer or poorer. Lastly, when I read that in Lewis essay Mr. B wants to divorce his wife because he doesn’t find her sexual attractive anymore. This topic I put to last because it’s the number one topic that truly gets me crazy because I know men out there that actually do that to their dearest wives. Now, when it comes to happiness I always do believe in â€Å"second chance†. Why couldn’t Mr. B tell his wife â€Å"Oh, honey lately you haven’t seem to care about yourself why don’t you treat yourself to the spa or get your hair done†. I mean is it that hard to be honest with your love partner? That’s only if you believe in giving â€Å"love† one more try and know that you still love him/her and would do anything to make it work. Therefore, that’s why there are a lot of divorces in America sadly to say. Couples forget the reason why they fell in love with each other from the very start and how great they used to communicate together as a strong loving married couple. It’s obvious that Mr. B was only caring about himself and not his wife. What I do know and I don’t want to sound like Im a know-it-all but because I have family members/friends who’s had that situation before getting divorce for so many reasons; that when two people have long lasting happiness it’s not because they are exclusive but because they trust each other and also have loyalty,  control over themselves, fair-minded, and etc. Even though Lewis obtainable made Mr. B and his mistress bad in his ess ay saying that others should be happy by â€Å"divorcing†. Overall, as what Lewis’ wanted to make his readers point out that the word â€Å"happiness† is a process of what we can achieve only when our interests aren’t based on ourselves but others too. His title of the essay is just like a question; â€Å"Do you believe we have no right to happiness?† It’s a message that Lewis’ sends out to his readers like what do we believe that if we should have the right to be happy. Obviously, we all do have the right no one should feel neglected. Sadly, to say that there are still people today those â€Å"think† they are powerless and can’t achieve anything. But I do strongly disagree on Lewis’ part for his title in the essay â€Å"We have no right to happiness† because I know that based on people’s life can be found happiness in many ways whether they find happiness in life, being rich, or love. Therefore, this topic is very fun and interesting to write about because everyone has their own opinions whether they believe or not that we should have the right to happiness it’s a very good argument.

Stefan’s Diaries: Bloodlust Chapter 18

As soon as Id taken every last ticket and accepted every last dollar, I slipped into the tent behind an overweight man clutching a sweaty wad of Confederate notes in each fist. The air was thick with the stench of sweat, sawdust, and, of course, blood. People were milling around us, paying extra money to gawk at the Strongman and the Tattooed Lady, all of whom were hidden behind thick black curtains at various intervals along the perimeter of the tent. But the majority of the crowd was clamoring around Jasper. Large wagers were being placed, with lots of shouting and hand signals and stacks of greasy notes being passed back and forth. Jasper gleefully chomped on his soggy cigar and laughed. Sailors yanked foreign bills from their billfolds. A few teenagers pooled their coins. Well-dressed men in ties waved gold coins. â€Å"Fight, fight, fight!† one red-faced man began yelling. Instantly, the people standing by him began to chant as well. Three well-dressed women, their hair in curls atop their heads, glanced at each other, giggled, and echoed the cheer, their alto voices contrasting with the mens baritone ones. Gallagher strode into the tent, his cane tapping a path through the sawdust. People turned and craned their necks to catch a glimpse of him; in the circus tent, he was just as much an attraction as the freaks. After all, this was the man whod caught a vampire. Be strong, brother, I whispered under my breath, remembering all the times Damon had won fights back in Mystic Falls. Damon had never provoked those battles but had always been a good fighter, always landing a punch fast when a fight broke out. Thats why hed been so respected in the army. But now, in a battle against a mountain lion, especially after not feeding for days I shuddered. â€Å"Brother?† I whispered tentatively, at a decibel I knew only his ears could detect. I was hoping for some sort of reply, even though I wasnt sure whether he could have actually heard me. If he did, he said nothing in response. â€Å"And now, lets introduce our fighters!† Gallaghers voice broke through my reverie. Two animal handlers, their hands in leather gloves and wearing boots that came up past their knees, walked into the ring, leading a mangy mountain lion. The mountain lion had a grayish-yellowish coat and yellow teeth, and, despite its lean body, looked brutal. And hungry. As if on cue, it uttered a roar. â€Å"In one end of your ring, you have the mountain lion. But this is no ordinary cat. This beast is the Alberta Avenger! He came down from Canada to find the hunter that killed his mate. He eviscerated the hunter, his wife, and all of his children except the youngest, whose legs the lion ate before leaving the rest of him alive to tell the story. Since then, you have followed the mountain lion in the newspapers as it has feasted its way on innocents in the Union and Confederacy without prejudice. Tonight, it is here only after we captured it trying to stow away on a boat bound for the Andes Mountains in South America. The mountain lion, ladies and gentlemen!† Gallagher yelled, his showmanship on full display. The crowd dutifully applauded enthusiastically, and some even cheered. â€Å"Its opponent is a legendary vampire that has been terrifying children and their parents for centuries. Viktor the Cruel was born in 1589 and was heir to the Hapsburg Empire until he first tasted blood–his sisters–and began a three-hundred-year feeding frenzy that has left a trail of drained bodies around the world. At an estimated two victims per day, this brings Viktors kills to one and a half million people, more than double the size of Italy. This unstoppable lust for blood continues tonight.† The applause was more nervous now, but the cheers were louder. Gallagher spread his hands apart with a flourish, and Damon came into the ring, surrounded by four handlers. His hands and feet were in chains, and his face was partially hidden by a muzzle. His skin was bleeding from the vervain, his eyes were bloodshot, and the expression on his face was one Id never seen. I could understand the hatred he felt–I was fighting every instinct I had not to kill the people holding him captive. But his imprisonment had changed him. Damon had called me a cold-blooded killer. The look in Damons eyes was not one of sport, or survival. It was pure bloodlust. A hush filled the tent. The mountain lion strained at his chains, but Damon simply stood in his corner of the ring, as if unaware of what the imminent future held for him. â€Å"And go!† Gallagher yelled. Immediately, the handlers unlocked Damons chains and opened the iron door of the mountain lions cage, then ran off the stage. The lion jumped toward Damon, making contact with his chest. Damon let out an anguished moan and fell backward. Then, just as quickly, he rose to his feet and roared, his face suddenly flushed, his fangs on full display. I knew this was all instinctual: Damons Power rising to the surface as soon as hed felt the attack. I had learned this about our kind in the past few weeks: Our power led us to do things before we even knew we were doing them. Despite Damons external weakness, his Power was still intact. The lion leaped again, and Damon went low, ducking under the claws and coming up at just the right moment to dig his hands into the lions neck. But the lion tossed Damon free; he rolled to a stop only when he slammed into the gate surrounding the ring. Damon let out another moan and lay on the ground. The lion began to stalk over to claim his kill. The crowd went wild, friends hitting one another in the arm and clawing at the air as though they themselves were in the fight. One of the handlers positioned along the sidelines poked at Damon, clearly to get him moving. Damon swung without looking, knocking the man into the stands. As the handler struggled to get up, two nearby customers kicked him in the gut and then dropped him over the back railing to the dirt below, out of sight. Damon paid no heed to the scuffle and moved deeper into the ring, letting the lion slowly circle him. After a long silence, Damon let out a feral growl and ran toward the lion. The lion roared in response and charged, but this time Damon stepped aside, and when the lion missed him, Damon hooked an arm up under the lions neck. With strength no one seemed to expect, Damon threw the lion onto its back. He was about to dive on top and go in for the kill when the lion kicked up and drove a claw right through Damons arm. The lion swatted its paw around, swinging Damon through the air like a fly on a fishing line. At last, the flesh gave way and Damon, with a red arc of blood trailing behind him, shot up through the air, then landed with a thud even I couldnt hear over the hellish roar of the celebrating crowd. Damon struggled to his feet, holding the wounded arm in place with the other. He wasnt healing as quickly as vampires usually do–I wondered if the vervain had dampened that Power. He needed blood, that much was clear. His survival instincts and the attendant adrenalin were waning. I was about to rush forward into the ring, with the stout man in front of me as an offering to my brother, when a warm hand fell on my arm. Callie. â€Å"Its horrible,† she said. Her knuckles had gone white around clumps of her dress. Her lips hung loose and trembled. â€Å"I cant watch this barbarism much longer.† â€Å"Then tell your father to stop it,† I hissed. The stomping on the wooden stands was picking up in speed and along with the racing heartbeats of the people. The splotches of blood in the sawdust werent enough to satisfy them–they needed to see a death. Now Damon was padding around the mountain lion, as the animal hunched, coiled, in the center of the ring, moving as little as possible while following Damon with its reflective eyes. Suddenly, Damon took off, moving at a blurred speed around the lion so that the animal had to rapidly turn and turn, as though chasing its own tail. A quiet came over the crowd, and only the heavy panting of Damon and the mountain lion echoed under the canvas of the tent. Damon circled his prey, moving faster than the lion could comprehend. The crowd gasped as Damon slanted toward the mountain lion, and before the beast could tell which direction he was coming from, Damon dove on the muscle behind the lions head. He bit in and held on, letting the lion kick and flip wildly. Callie clutched my arm. My eyes were riveted on the scene, and my body was primed to run to the cage should I need to intervene. The mountain lion was slowing. Each time it bucked, more blood appeared in the sawdust in little red rivers. Its left hind leg was looking weak now; wobbling, it started to flop toward the ground. Damon unlatched his fangs and reared back, ready to go for the vein in the cats neck. Just then, the cat flailed its hindquarters and threw Damon free. As Damon tried to recover his feet, the mountain lion moved in and wrapped its jaws around his side. The crowd gasped again, then began to boo. Fight, I urged with every fiber of my being, clenching my fists at my sides. Damon had gone limp and was being flung around like an old slipper in a dogs mouth. The lion tossed Damon to the ground, then pulled its head back and opened wide. But just as the animal dove forward, Damon rolled away. He drove his shoulder into the confused beasts side, bowling it over and exposing the short white hairs on its throat. Damon tore into the vein with his fangs. The mountain lion twitched its way to stillness as a puddle of blood became bigger and bigger until it was a great lake of blood within the fighting ring. At its center was my brother, kneeling over a dead mountain lion. He stood and stumbled backward a step. He looked up into the crowd with a wide smile on his face, his fangs out and his whole face and front dripping with blood. The crowd cheered and booed in equal measure, and Damon just turned in a small circle, occasionally licking his lips. Gallagher clapped his fat hands together. The ones whod made money jumped and hugged one another. The ones whod lost threw hats to the ground or stared blankly ahead. I leaped forward, trying to push my way to my brother, but the handlers had already moved in, stakes and vervain-laced nets in hand. Damon was clearly drunk on such a massive feed after not eating for so long and didnt seem to notice them. Before I could even shout a warning, the men wrapped him in nets and began dragging him out of the arena. Even at my fastest, I couldnt get past the crowd that had filled in behind them and now blocked the entire way. All of the revelers, hooting and slobbering, stood between me and the exit, and by the time I pushed and shoved my way out, the wagon was careening out of the fairgrounds. A whip cracked. Hooves beat the ground. And just like that, Damon was gone.